UNDERSTANDING ISLAM
In 1978, historian Michael Hart wrote a book entitled, The One Hundred: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History. Translated into over fifteen languages, Hart stirred controversy by giving the honor of Most Influential Person in History to Muhammad. He states, “My choice of Muhammad to lead the list of the world's most influential persons may surprise some readers and may be questioned by others, but he was the only man in history who was supremely successful on both religious and secular levels.”[1] Who was this man that one out of every four people in the world see as the final prophet of God?[2]
THE MAN AND THE MESSAGE
Muhammad ibn Abdullah was born in 570AD in Makka (modern day Mecca, Saudi Arabia). During that time in the Arabian Gulf various clans would travel into Mecca to worship and offer their allegiance to over 360 deities.[3] These gods were displayed in the Ka’bah, a cube-shaped structure located in the center of the city. Mecca was a strategic city in light of its placement along the Red Sea between Yemen and the Mediterranean. Muhammad’s father was named Abdullah, which in Arabic means “servant of Allah” (Allah is the Arabic word for God). He died soon after Muhammad’s birth. When Muhammad was just six years old, his mother, Amina bint Wahb also passed away, leaving him to be raised by his uncle, Abu Talib.
Muhammad spent his youth tending to caravans, guiding them across the Arabian Gulf’s hot and dry desert. On one commercial journey to Syria he even encountered Christian monks.[4] Muhammad was a religious man and would often steal away to fast and pray in solitude. When he was twenty five years old, Muhammad married Khadija a rich widow fifteen years his senior.[5] They had six children: two boys (who died very young) and four girls. Only one daughter, Fatimah, outlived Muhammad.
Khadija’s wealth enabled Muhammad to devote more time to spiritual meditation. He regularly retreated to a cave on Mount Hira, three miles northeast of Mecca.[6] Muslim tradition affirms that there, in 610AD, the angel Gabriel appeared to him and said, “Recite in the name of your Lord who created, created man from clots of blood! Recite! Your Lord is the Most Bountiful One, who by the pen taught man what he did not know.”[7] Muhammad was forty, unable to read or write, so the angel charged him to recite those words.
Muhammad’s first converts were his wife and his cousin ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib. Over the next few years, as Muhammad’s preaching became more public, he attracted ridicule from upper class politicians. His stance on idol worship and wealth began to undermine their source of power. His claim to speak directly from Allah showed he must be dealt with. A failed assassination attempt caused Muhammad to seek asylum elsewhere. Medina (then called Yathrib), a city approximately 225 miles north, was open to Muhammad’s teaching; so he and his band of 150 loyal followers snuck out of Mecca in 622AD and journeyed there in hopes of finding refuge.[8]
Though Medina offered the safety they sought it also presented a new challenge; one that would shape the identity of this emerging faith. The responsibility to feed, clothe and educate the small group who’d abandoned everything in Mecca fell upon Muhammad. Since Muhammad’s past experience had trained him in the ways of camel caravanning he knew the routes, the seasons, the habits, and the skills of this timeless Middle-Eastern tradition. Forced to use desperate measures, Muhammad led his followers in raiding caravans; taking their loot and coercing conversion at sword-point. At first, they preyed on small bands and spilled no blood. Tasting success led the early Muslims to believe Allah was on their side.
Eventually as desert caravans became aware of the dangers of Muslim raiders, they would fortify themselves by adding men and arms to their expedition. One of the most important battles for Muslims is called the Battle of Badr involving a wealthy Meccan caravan who, fearing the raiding Muslims, added 1,000 men for protection. Muhammad spent the night in prayer. The next day his 300 men conquered the multitude. He referred to this battle in the Qur’an, “It was not you, but Allah who slew them. It was not you who smote them: Allah smote them so that he might richly reward the faithful” (Sura 8:17). The Meccan tribe rallied 3,000 men for a counter attack against Muhammad. Seventy Muslims died and Muhammad himself was severely wounded–rumors about his death spread through the camp.[9] Muhammad wasted no time in the recovery of his reputation and triumphed in a subsequent battle, the Battle of Ditch. In this war, Muhammad put 600 adult Jewish males to death and sold their women and children into slavery because he suspected they betrayed him to his enemy tribe.[10]
Muslims continued to justify themselves in their extreme and bloody warfare and in fighting during sacred months in which tribal attack was forbidden.[11] Muhammad, defending their actions said, “People ask you about fighting in the forbidden month. Say: ‘Fighting in it is a grave matter, but more grave than this is blocking the path of Allah and rejecting Him’” (Sura 2:217). Their success proved to Muhammad’s followers that Allah was indeed an ally of Islam and, therefore, no undertaking, fighting or otherwise, would lack his support. Muslim raiders offered a choice to all their victims: convert to Islam, pay a tax for protection, or fight. Many chose to convert and in a mere eight years, Muhammad’s following increased a hundred-fold from 100 to 10,000. He began to set his sights on Mecca.
On January 30, 630AD he led his army into the city with an offer for their peaceful surrender. They complied. Muhammad’s first act as prophet and king over Mecca was to destroy all idols and proclaim ‘Allahu Akbar’ (Allah is the Greatest). On June 8, 632AD, at age 63, he fell ill with a fever and died. He is buried in Medina.
THE SIX TENETS OF FAITH
The word Islam means ‘submission to Allah’ and refers to the religion itself. A Muslim is ‘one who submits to Allah’ and the individual who practices the faith. To be a Muslim you must abide by the six tenets of Islam. You might be surprised how similar these six tenets sound to doctrines of the Christian faith.
There is one God, who is All-Powerful: Allah is seen as the Almighty, the Creator, and the Sovereign Sustainer of everything. Islam holds that there are ninety-nine names of Allah including: All-Powerful, All-Knowing and Eternal. He has no partner and every other god is false. The Qur’an states, “And call not with Allah any other god; there is no god but He” (Sura 28:88). It is important to understand that Allah does not reveal himself; only his will. This means Allah does not enter into a relationship with Muslims. “The Muslim is called to obey Allah, not to know him.”[12] The Fatherhood concept of God is completely rejected.
There are angels, good and bad: Allah created angels to praise him and to bow before humans. Satan refused, was cursed, and is now the enemy of man and in authority over all demons.
And when your Lord said to the angels: "I am going to create a man (Adam) from sounding clay of altered black smooth mud. So, when I have fashioned him completely and breathed into him the soul which I created for him, then fall down prostrating yourselves unto him." So, the angels prostrated themselves, all of them together. Except Iblis (Satan),–he refused to be among the prostrators… Allah said, “Then get out of here, for indeed, you are expelled” (Sura 15:28-34).
The angel Gabriel is also mentioned in the Qur’an as the angel who appeared to Muhammad in the cave and told him to “recite!” (Sura 2:97-98). The Angel of Death, the angel who will blow the trumpet on the last day, and the angel Michael are also mentioned in the Qur’an (Sura 2:98, 32:11). Other angels, called recording angels, serve the purpose of keeping account of one’s good and bad deeds.
God spoke through the prophets of old: There are twenty-five prophets mentioned in the Qur’an and many are the same as those found in the Bible. To name a few: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, David, Solomon, and John the Baptist. Muslims see these prophets as messengers from Allah and many of their stories also correlate with biblical accounts. However, Islam is adamant the final prophet is Muhammad. The Qur’an states, “Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but he is the Apostle of Allah and the last of the prophets” (Sura 33:40).
God has given us Holy Scriptures: Muslims believe the Holy Books are the recorded words Allah revealed. The five Holy Books embraced by Muslims today are: the Suhufs (given to Abraham which are now lost), the Torah (given to Moses; our Pentateuch), the Zaboor (the Psalms), the Injil (given to Jesus and was lost or changed), and the Qur’an (given to Muhammad).[13] While three of the five Holy Books support the Christian faith (Torah, Zaboor, and Injil) Muslims believe the Qur’an is the last word.
The Qur’an is the highest authority for every Muslim. Taught orally by Muhammad for twenty-three years of his life (from his cave experience at age 40 until his death at 63), it was codified in 657AD almost twenty-five years after his death.[14] The word Qur’an means “recitation,” referring to when Gabriel recited the words from Allah to Muhammad. It has 114 chapters called suras that together contain 6,219 verses. Most Muslims believe the Qur’an eternally existed in the mind of Allah and is the unalterable Word of Allah.[15] That is why, since its original revelation was in the Arabic language, translations are considered an alteration and not accepted as the true Qur’an. Muslims being groomed for leadership are required to memorize it in full.
What God has predestined will occur: Allah is in complete control and His plans will not be thwarted. Everything happens because he has willed it. It is impossible to have a conversation with a Muslim without hearing the phrase, “In sh’allah” (if Allah wills it). It signifies that a Muslim can rest assured because no matter what happens in life, Allah is in control.
God will come and judge the world: Islam attests that everyone will face a day of judgment according to their beliefs and deeds. Tradition holds when a person dies two angels visit them in the grave and ask him a series of questions, “Who is your Lord?” “What is your religion?” and “Who is your Prophet?” Each individual’s good and bad deeds are put on a scale and weighed. These factors combine to make a person a favorable candidate for either hell or paradise. Ultimately though, Allah is given the final word.
THE FIVE PILLARS
Whenever I meet a Muslim, I like to ask, “Are you devout?” It’s a difficult question to answer for them, but after a moment of pondering, the response usually goes back to the five pillars of Islam. Devotion is defined by one’s ability to uphold all five.
The Creed (Shahada):
The creed is Islam’s proclamation, “There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is Allah’s messenger.” In Arabic it is “La ilaha illa Allah Wa Muhammadun rasul Allah.” It is this simple confession which, once uttered sincerely, makes one a Muslim. It should be recited aloud without hesitation, understood, and believed in one’s heart. These are the first words whispered into a newborn’s ears and the last words on the lips of the dying.[16]
Prayer (Salat):
Though the Qur’an is never explicit about the number of times per day one should pray, sacred tradition affirms five.[17] It is the duty of every Muslim and should be done with the community of believers at the mosque as much as possible. It is believed Muhammad said, “The reward of the prayer offered by a person in congregation is twenty-five times greater than that of the prayer offered in one’s house or in the market (alone).”[18] The first prayer is at dawn and the last starts an hour and a half after sunset. In Muslim lands, the call to prayer is a pervasive presence. Crying out all day, it’s an inescapable affirmation of Islamic belief. Translated from Arabic, the prayer is,
Allah is most great, Allah is most great, Allah is most great, I witness that there is no god but Allah: I witness that there is no god but Allah. I witness that Muhammad is his messenger, I witness that Muhammad is his messenger. Come to prayer, come to prayer. Come to prosperity, come to prosperity. Allah is most great. Allah is most great. There is no god but Allah.
Charity (Zakat):
Muslims are to be characterized as generous people. They are required to give 2.5% of their income to the poor, new convert, or others in need. Today most Muslims fulfill Zakat by giving to their parents or other family members. The Qur’an states giving to one’s family yields a double reward, “Righteousness is this, that one should believe in Allah…and give away wealth out of love for him to the near of kin and the orphans and the needy and the wayfarer and the beggars” (Sura 2:177).
Fast (Sawm):
For all Muslims who are physically able, fasting during the month of Ramadan (the ninth month of the lunar Hijri calendar) is mandatory. Considered an act of worship, Muslims deny themselves food, drink and sexual relations during the daylight hours for the entire month. During this time they are to do good deeds, spend time memorizing the Qur’an, and make requests of Allah. “There is triumph of mind over matter. The desires to quench thirst, to soften the pangs of hunger, or to light a cigarette, are placed in their proper perspective as things which can be postponed, and in some cases given up altogether, if necessary.” [19] Muslims believe “When the month of Ramadan comes, the gates of Paradise are opened and the gates of Hell are closed, and the devils are chained.”[20] Ironically, many Muslims gain weight during Ramadan because they sleep during the day and celebrate all night with excess food intake.[21] One friend of mine told me that he had to go on a diet after his month of fasting! During Ramadan there is one special night–the Night of Power. To Muslims, the ear of Allah is never closer than on the Night of Power for, it is believed on this night, in 610AD, the verses of the Qur’an were handed down to Muhammad. This one night is more valuable than a thousand months. “And what will explain to you what the Night of Power is? The Night of Power is better than a thousand months” (Sura 97:2-3).
Pilgrimage (Hajj):
It is the duty of all Muslims who are physically and financially able to visit Mecca at least once in their lifetime. The Ka’bah, the holiest site for all Muslims, is located there. Islam holds the original Ka’bah was built by Adam and rebuilt by Abraham. The Black Stone is held in the southeast corner of the Ka’bah. Its worth lies in the belief that Muhammad himself placed the stone there, and that the stone was originally white and has turned black from the sins of the people. During the hajj, pilgrims wear a seamless white robe (signifying the rich and poor are both humbled before Allah) and circle the Ka’bah seven times before kissing the Black Stone. Muslim tradition states, “Every step taken by the pilgrim in the direction of the Ka’bah blots out a sin; and the person who dies on his pilgrimage is enrolled among the martyrs.”[22]
Muslims must be obedient to the five pillars of Islam. Striking similarities exist between the demands of Islam and those of Judaism and early Christianity. Islamic scholar, J. Dudley Woodberry observes that the pillars of Islam are all adaptations from Jewish and Christian forms.[23] The first pillar, confession (Shahada), was based on Deuteronomy 6:4, “Hear O Israel, the Lord our God is One Lord.” The second pillar, prayer (Salat) is seen in both Jewish and Christian history. Formal prayer in Judaism was practiced three times a day and Christian monks prayed up to seven. Woodberry suggests Islam took a middle position with five times a day. The third pillar, almsgiving (Zakat), not only mirrors the New Testament ideal of giving, but also reflects biblical truths that one should give secretly and that God blesses the giver (Matthew 6:1-4, Sura 2:271). The fourth pillar, fasting (Sawm) is similar in that Moses, Elijah and Jesus each fasted for 40 days and nights. Paul also fasted frequently. The fifth pillar, the pilgrimage (hajj), is found in Psalm 81:3-4 when the Israelites assembled in Jerusalem for the sacrifices. Festivals gathered the Israelites together in Jerusalem three times a year. Because Christianity and Judaism both pre-date Islam, and Muhammad had interaction with both Jews and Christians it’s no stretch to imagine the formation of the five pillars was an attempt by Muhammad to earn favor and audience with his mono-theistic contemporaries.
THE QUR’AN AND JESUS
My wife and I had just moved to the Middle East. We found an apartment, got a car, enrolled in Arabic class, and went out to meet some locals. The first person I met, a college student named Abdullah. He had good English and we connected right away. He invited me, his friends, and his brothers to his house for a meal. Halfway through the meal Abdullah looked up at me and asked, “Todd, in your opinion what is the most important verse in all the Qur’an?” I almost choked on my piece of lamb! Fresh off the plane and this was the introductory question into my first friendship! Sura 112:1-2 came to my mind and I quoted, “Allah is One. Allah is He on Whom all depend.” Abdullah nodded his head in agreement suggesting I had done well. As we continued to talk he shared with me his work on a project for one of his classes–an essay on the topic, “Who was Jesus?” I asked him what he had concluded. “Jesus is one of the most unique people who has ever been born, lived, and died” he answered. A little shocked I asked him to elaborate. “He was born of a virgin, did many miracles and then ascended to Allah; who else has done these things?” I said, “What have you been reading?” (thinking he had stumbled onto a New Testament). He responded, “Oh I found all of that in the Qur’an!”
Jesus is mentioned in the Qur’an by name twenty-five times (Muhammad is mentioned four) and His birth, life and ascension are affirmed.
Jesus’ birth:
"O Mary! Allah giveth thee glad tidings of a Word from Him: his name will be Christ Jesus, the son of Mary, held in honor in this world and the hereafter." She said: "O my Lord! How shall I have a son when no man hath touched me?" He said: "Even so: Allah createth what He willeth: when He hath decreed a plan, He says 'Be', and it is!" (Sura 3:45-47).
Jesus’ miracles:
“He will be a messenger to the children of Israel saying, ‘I have come to you with a sign from your Lord… I heal him who was born blind, and the leper, and I bring the dead to life by Allah’s leave… Surely therein is a sign for you if you believe’” (Sura 3:49).
Jesus’ ascension:
And when Allah said: “O Jesus, I am going to terminate the period of your stay (on earth) and cause you to ascend unto Me… then to Me shall be your return” (Sura 3:55).
It’s clear Christianity and Islam have common ground in elements of Jesus’ identity–no Muslim would dispute the virgin birth, Jesus’ many miracles, His ascension to Allah, or His expected return.
We share other aspects of faith in common as well.
Allah creates the earth in six days (Sura 25:59), culminating in the creation of the first man, Adam. He and his wife eat the forbidden fruit and become aware of their nakedness (Sura 20:115-112).
Allah sends Moses to confront Pharaoh, inflict the plagues on Egypt and lead the Israelites out of Egypt by parting the Rea Sea (Sura 26:9-75).
Allah gives Moses the Ten Commandments on two tablets of stone (Sura 7:143-150).
Noah builds the ark (Sura 11:25-49).
King David commits adultery with Bathsheba (Sura 28:21-25).
The Queen of Sheba visits Solomon (Sura 27:22-44).
Jonah is swallowed by the great fish (Sura 37:139-148).
Timothy Tennent observes a broader connection between Christianity and Islam, “In addition to specific references to God, Islam shares common theological categories with Christianity, including concepts such as sin, righteousness, divine judgment, heaven, hell, forgiveness, and mercy.”[24] So where do our paths separate?
THE PARTING OF WAYS
In 615AD as persecution of Muslims increased in Mecca, a small group led by one of Muhammad’s daughters, Ruqayyah, fled across the Red Sea to modern day Ethiopia. They were granted protection by Ethiopia’s Christian king, Negus. The king desired to learn the faith of his new refugees so they shared elements of the Islamic belief system regarding the one, true God and the prophets Jesus and Muhammad. After hearing this, King Negus picked up a stick, drew a line in the sand, and said, “As God is my witness, the difference between your position and ours is not as wide as this line.”[25] Timothy Tennent reminds us that though our differences are few, the “theological significance stemming from those few issues is deeper than the Red Sea…”[26]
It is important to note Muhammad did not have access to a Bible. No Arabic translations existed in the seventh century. Forced to rely on oral traditions and his own understanding, his picture of scripture was skewed. For example, you may have heard that Muslims are vehemently opposed to our idea of the Trinity. Well, Muhammad thought the members of the Trinity were the Father, Son and Virgin Mary. “And Allah will say: O Isa (Jesus) son of Marium (Mary)! Did you say to men, Take me and my mother for two gods besides Allah…” (Sura 5:116). So, while a major element of the chasm that stands between us is where we stand on the Trinity, what they oppose is also emphatically opposed by all evangelical Christians.
Islam rejects the notion that God would have a son. In the Islamic worldview this idea lowers Him to the level of an animal. Muhammad was reacting against the polytheistic tribal religions which dominated Mecca. The deities of which would procreate sons and daughters through physical relations. Again, it’s largely an issue of semantics because Muslims understand the Sonship of Christ as originating from a sexual relationship between God and Mary. We, however, understand Sonship has less to do with Christ’s physical birth since He eternally existed with God. Rather, the title “Son” has more to do with the fact that Jesus does the will of the Father and represents Him.[27] The Qur’an states,
In their ignorance they have falsely ascribed to Him sons and daughters. Glory be to Him! And high let Him be exalted above that which they attribute to Him! Sole Maker of the Heavens and of the Earth! How, when He hath no consort, should He have a son? (Sura 6:100-101)
Muslims can’t fathom God having a Son much less ascribing deity to Him. In Islam, the greatest sin someone could commit is called shirk. This is the attribution of a partner to Allah. The Qur’an asserts, “Allah forgives not [the sin of] joining other gods with Him; but He forgives whom He pleases other sins than this: one who joins other gods with Allah, hath strayed far, far away” (Sura 4:116). Indeed, our differences are few, but they are as deep as the Red Sea!
Islam also rejects the crucifixion. Muslims do not believe Christ endured this death. They choose rather to believe Allah raised Jesus to heaven before he was crucified. In Jesus’ place on the cross was another man who all wrongly perceived to be Jesus.
They say, “Verily we have slain the Messiah, Jesus the son of Mary, an Apostle of Allah”–yet they slew him not, and they crucified him not, but they had only his likeness (Sura 4:156-157).
As one Islamic scholar suggested, “The idea of the physical death of the Infinite God is no doubt the worst blasphemy that has been uttered in the world, even a denial of God coming next to it.”
When pursuing to understand Islam it is important to know Islam and Christianity share a common ground to build upon. They speak of our prophets and retell many of our biblical stories. Yet the Bible is clear–when you reject the divinity of the Son, you also reject the Father! “Whoever denies the Son does not have the Father; the one who confesses the Son has the Father…” (1 John 2:23). Don’t be mistaken in believing that our similarities are enough to affirm Muslims and Christians worship the same God. Don’t make the opposite mistake of avoiding Muslims out of fear or ignorance. Every Muslim people group around the globe will one day have a representative before God’s throne. It will happen! And God is inviting us now to partner with Him to strive toward its completion.
This article is taken from Todd Ahrend’s book The Abrahamic Revolution. Used with permission.
To read more about the missional theme of God's Word, the task remaining in God's world, and our calling to God's work, check out The Abrahamic Revolution by Todd Ahrend.
[1] The top six of Michael Hart’s list of one hundred are: 1) Muhammad 2) Isaac Newton 3) Jesus Christ 4) Buddha 5) Confucius 6) Apostle Paul. Michael Hart, The One Hundred: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History (New York, NY: Citadel Press, 1978), 3.
[2] Luis Lugo, “Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population.” The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. October 7, 2009. Available from pewforum.org.
[3] Malise Ruthven, Islam in the World 3rd edition (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2006), 28.
[4] Anne Cooper ed., Ishmael My Brother (Great Britain: MARC Publications, 1985), 105.
[5] Fazlur Rahman, Islam (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 11.
[6] Ali Dashti, Twenty Three Years: A Study of the Prophetic Career of Mohammad (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 1985), 23-24.
[7] The Koran, Translated by N. J. Dawood (Great Britain: Penguin Books, 1956), Sura 96:1-5.
[8] The year 622AD is called “the flight” and for the Muslim calendar it is equivalent to 0AD. Norman Geisler and Abdul Saleeb, Answering Islam: The Crescent in Light of the Cross (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1993), 76.
[9] Samuel Zwemer, The Moslem World (Nashville, TN: Publishing House of the M.E., 1908), 15.
[10] Ruthven, 55-56.
[11] Ruthven, 50-52, 56.
[12] Timothy Tennent, Invitation to World Missions: A Trinitarian Missiology for the Twenty-first Century (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel, 2010), 80.
[13] Jay Smith, “Six Muslims Beliefs (Iman) and a Christian’s Response: For a Muslim Enquirer.” May, 1995. Available at debate.org.uk.
[14] Timothy Tennent, Christianity at the Religious Roundtable (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic Publishing, 2002),144.
[15] The Ibadhi sect (the majority group in Oman) strongly rejects the teaching that the Qur’an is eternal. They say only Allah is eternal.
[16] Cooper, 114.
[17] The times and names of prayer are as follows: 1) Dawn Fajr 2) Just after midday Dhuhr/Zuhr 3) Late afternoon Asr 4) Immediately after sunset Maghrib 5) An hour and a half after sunset, and before midnight Isha.
[18] Phil Parshall, Understanding Muslim Teachings and Traditions (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1994), 63.
[19] Kenneth Craig and Marston Speight, Islam from Within (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1980), 55.
[20] Parshall, 75.
[21] Kuwait Times, “Gulf Muslims Gain Weight in Ramadan.” August 31, 2008.
[22] Cooper, 126.
[23] J. Dudley Woodberry, “Contextualization Among Muslims Reusing Common Pillars.” International Journal of Frontier Missions, Vol. 13:4 Oct-Dec. 1996.
[24] Timothy Tennent, Christianity at the Religious Roundtable, 152-153.
[25] Sayed Ali Asgher Razawy, Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims (United Kingdom, World Federation of KSI Muslim Communities). Available at portalislamica.org. Also see Timothy Tennent, Christianity at the Religious Roundtable, 151-152.
[26] Timothy Tennent, Christianity at the Religious Roundtable, 166.
[27] Colin Chapman, Cross and Crescent: Responding to the Challenge of Islam (England, InterVarsity Press, 1995), 191.
